Individual prayer scrolls (hmayil in Armenian) offer a fascinating insight into the folk culture of the Christian tradition. In the same vein as pre-Christian amulets, talismans and ornamental charms, these miniature scrolls served as a conduit to invoke the blessings of safety and protection.
Just a few inches wide and several feet long, each prayer scroll is rolled up and inserted in a small case crafted of wood, metal, or cloth. These encasements are called Kshtapanak (from the Armenian word kusht, meaning side). They could be kept at home, stitched into garments or worn around the neck to serve as a spiritual shield for travelers, merchants, pregnant women, newborns and others among the most vulnerable.
Most prevalent in Armenia between the 15th and 19th centuries, prayer scrolls were inscribed on separate parchments and glued together, sometimes reaching over 270 inches in length, based largely on the ancient belief that prayers and curses were more effective when rolled up. Additionally, Rev. Fr. Barouyr Shernezian, the Dean of the Armenian Theological Seminary of the Catholicosate of the Great House of Cilicia, notes that, based on the same belief, the scrolls were to be made in silence to avoid interrupting the power of the written word.
The longest known scroll is housed in the French National Library and measures about 1,092 inches (91 feet). The prayer scrolls of New Julfa are notable for their length as well, ranging between approximately three to five feet.
The bespoke variety, made by request, bore the owner’s name in several places, as evidenced by the ink and the scribe’s handwriting, used for both the main text and the name. Other prayer scrolls were produced for sale, often with a blank space for the purchaser to add their name. Most of these prayer scrolls were passed down through inheritance or, in rare cases, theft, despite the popular belief that a stolen prayer scroll loses its power. With each new recipient erasing the previous name and writing in their own, some show dozens of names erased and rewritten.
With the rise of the Armenian printing houses in the latter half of the 17th century, prayer scrolls were also printed, often featuring intricate woodcut and hand-colored illustrations.
Matenadaran’s Head of the Depository of Manuscripts, Dr. David Ghazaryan notes that about 20 printed scrolls have survived to the present day, produced between 1659 and 1731 by four Armenian printing houses. Three of them were located in Constantinople and run by Grigor Marzuantsi (Gregory of Marzuan), Astvatsatur of Constantinople, and Edgar Gndevanetsi. The fourth, known as the Gulbasar Printing House has no other surviving publications other than a single printed scroll found in a private collection.
Today, only a limited number of prayer scrolls are known to exist. Matenadaran holds the largest collection, with approximately 600 scrolls, the oldest dating back to 1428 created by the scribe Simeon in Mufarghin (present-day Diyarbakir in Turkey). A significant collection is also preserved at the Holy Savior Monastery of New Julfa, Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, the Mekhitarist Congregations in Venice and Vienna, as well as in libraries and museums in Armenia and worldwide.
Origins and Influences
Scholars agree that Christian prayer scrolls are derived from the amulets of ancient times. They were common in many ancient pagan cultures including Armenian. Therefore, a limited number describe non-Christian rituals intended to bring good luck and protection. However, Dr. Ghazaryan states that the majority of existing prayer scrolls are Christian, with many biblical and spiritual messages written by clergymen themselves—one example was even signed by a bishop. This indicates that by the 15th century, the practice of prayer scrolls had become Christianized.
Dr. Ghazaryan further explains that most scrolls include the prayer In Faith I Confess by Nerses IV the Gracious (Nerses Shnorhali, Catholicos of Armenia, 1166-1173), the 12th and 41st verses of the Book of Lamentations by Gregory of Narek, as well as passages from the Gospels, such as scenes of Christ’s healings. A single scroll could contain up to 73 passages.
A scroll sewn into a women’s headdress contained a popular verse from Gregory of Narek, often used for headache.
Additionally, many often include specific stories depending on their intended owner. The most common story is the Conversion of Cyprian (Kiprianos), for which scrolls are synonymously called Kiprianos. According to the tale, Hustiane was a Christian virgin and Cyprian was a magician. When a non-Christian man fell in love with Hustiane but was rejected, he asked Cyprian to use his magical powers to seize his object of affection. However, Cyprian himself fell for Hustiane and ultimately converted into Christianity and became a cleric.
Another storyline involves Al (Hal), a demon of childbirth in the folklores of Armenia and other nations in the region. As Harvard professor James R. Russell notes, in the medieval period a woman’s primary role was to marry and bear children and failure to do so was considered a great misfortune. Due to high mortality rates, people often relied on amulets and scrolls for blessings and protection. Consequently, prayer scrolls made for women commonly feature the story of Al—an evil spirit believed to cause difficult childbirths or miscarriages—who is defeated by saints and vows to stay forty houses away from the owner. As for men, the scrolls were typically used to attract prosperous trade, safe travel, and benevolence of the authorities or judges they might encounter.
The belief in the healing powers of prayer scrolls was widespread, which explains why so many contain texts written for headaches, nausea, or eye pain, giving the impression of a prescription. Many kept the scroll close to the aching area or frequently recited from the text to hasten recovery from the ailment.
Dr. Ghazaryan recalls discovering a scroll at the History Museum of Armenia. “A scroll sewn into a women’s headdress contained a popular verse from Gregory of Narek, often used for headache.”
Folk Imprints
According to Very Rev. Shernezian, beyond the church passages and prayers, the scrolls contain elements of simplicity and naivety rarely seen in illuminated manuscripts. For instance, for villagers, animals were vital to the family’s livelihood and were cherished like members of the family. In one prayer scroll at the Cilicia Museum, there is a special prayer for the growth and thriving of livestock, along with a folk story of Jesus healing animals—a passage not found in the Bible. The scroll also features an image of an animal, likely a cow, which is extremely rare in these pieces.
Similarly, one sometimes finds names of saints that are unfamiliar in the Christian tradition. In the same scroll, Very Rev. Shernezian encounters a saint named Kapitos, whom he doubts ever existed. “I suppose it is invented from the verb kapel (to tie up, chain)... Naturally, the scroll serves not only to heal and protect believers from illness or misfortune, but also to chain the evil that causes such afflictions. In this passage, written with that notion in mind, we see how the text is crafted to chain the senses of wicked people by calling upon the angels,” he concludes.
The art and script of prayer scrolls bring together faith, folk imagination, and the everyday lives of Armenians. They are not just spiritual vessels but a glimpse into the timeless human quest to ward off evil, danger, and misfortune through the power of prayer.
Icons and Imagery
Visuals also represent a rich layer of folk culture, adding great value to these pieces. Their artistic decoration prominently features icons of God the Father, Jesus Christ, Gregory of Narek, Nerses Shnorhali, the Apostles, and others. Among these, a distinct category includes depictions of saints on horseback or performing protective acts, such as Saint Sargis, Saint George, and Saint Theodore, as well as scenes of healing, subduing, or restraining evil spirits.
Interestingly, the style of these illustrations is much freer than the strict canons of Armenian miniature art, largely because the scribes were amateur or non-professional artists. Dr. Ghazaryan mentions that specifically for the scrolls preserved in New Julfa, Armenian Iranian historian and researcher Dr. Levon Minasyan explained that many were written by priests who had been ordained less than 40 days, highlighting their amateur status while further confirming that numerous scrolls were indeed produced by church representatives. “Such freedom sometimes resulted in images that resemble modern cubism–for example, Christ depicted with a triangular body or saints without limbs–something conventional miniature art would never allow,” notes Ghazaryan.
The art and script of prayer scrolls bring together faith, folk imagination, and the everyday lives of Armenians. They are not just spiritual vessels but a glimpse into the timeless human quest to ward off evil, danger, and misfortune through the power of prayer.
